Malignant Hyperthermia Susceptibility

Clinical characteristics.

Malignant hyperthermia susceptibility (MHS) is a pharmacogenetic disorder of skeletal muscle calcium regulation associated with uncontrolled skeletal muscle hypermetabolism. Manifestations of malignant hyperthermia (MH) are precipitated by certain volatile anesthetics (i.e., halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane, enflurane), either alone or in conjunction with a depolarizing muscle relaxant (specifically, succinylcholine). The triggering substances cause uncontrolled release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and may promote entry of extracellular calcium into the myoplasm, causing contracture of skeletal muscles, glycogenolysis, and increased cellular metabolism, resulting in production of heat and excess lactate. Affected individuals experience acidosis, hypercapnia, tachycardia, hyperthermia, muscle rigidity, compartment syndrome, rhabdomyolysis with subsequent increase in serum creatine kinase (CK) concentration, hyperkalemia with a risk for cardiac arrhythmia or even cardiac arrest, and myoglobinuria with a risk for renal failure. In nearly all cases, the first manifestations of MH (tachycardia and tachypnea) occur in the operating room; however, MH may also occur in the early postoperative period. There is mounting evidence that some individuals with MHS will also develop MH with exercise and/or on exposure to hot environments. Without proper and prompt treatment with dantrolene sodium, mortality is extremely high.

Diagnosis/testing.

The diagnosis of MHS is established with in vitro muscle contracture testing by measuring the contracture responses of biopsied muscle samples to halothane and graded concentrations of caffeine. The diagnosis of MHS can also be established by identification of a pathogenic variant in CACNA1S, RYR1, or STAC3 on molecular genetic testing.

Management.

Treatment of manifestations: Early diagnosis of an MH episode is essential. Successful treatment of an acute episode of MH includes: discontinuation of potent inhalation agents and succinylcholine; increase in minute ventilation to lower end-tidal CO₂; use of MHAUS helpline; administration of dantrolene sodium intravenously; cooling measures if body temperature is >38.5° C; treatment of cardiac arrhythmias if needed (do not use calcium channel blockers); monitoring blood gases, serum concentrations of electrolytes and CK, blood and urine for myoglobin, and coagulation profile; treatment of metabolic abnormalities.

Prevention of primary manifestations: Individuals with MHS should not be exposed to potent volatile agents and succinylcholine. Individuals undergoing general anesthetics that exceed 30 minutes in duration should have their temperature monitored using an electronic temperature probe. Individuals with MHS should carry proper identification as to their susceptibility.

Agents/circumstances to avoid: Avoid potent inhalation anesthetics and succinylcholine. Calcium channel blockers should not be given together with dantrolene due to a potential cardiac depressant effect. Serotonin antagonist (5HT3-antagonist) antiemetics should be used cautiously. Individuals with MHS should avoid extremes of heat, but not restrict athletic activity unless there is a history of overt rhabdomyolysis and/or heat stroke. Strenuous activities at high ambient temperatures should be avoided or performed with caution. In individuals with MH undergoing cardiac bypass surgery, aggressive rewarming should be avoided, as it may be associated with development of clinical signs of MH.

Evaluation of relatives at risk: If the MHS-causative pathogenic variant in the family is known, molecular genetic testing can be used to established increased risk of MH in a heterozygous individual; molecular genetic testing alone cannot be used to identify family members who are not at increased risk for MH due to other possible genetic risk factors. If the pathogenic variant in the family is not known or if an at-risk relative is found to be negative for a familial pathogenic variant, muscle contracture testing can be used to assess susceptibility to MH.

Pregnancy management: If a pregnant woman with MHS requires a non-emergent surgery, a non-triggering anesthetic (local, nerve block, epidural, spinal anesthesia, or a total intravenous general anesthetic) should be administered. Continuous epidural analgesia is highly recommended for labor and delivery. If a cesarean delivery is indicated in a woman who does not have an epidural catheter in place, neuraxial (spinal, epidural, or combined spinal-epidural) anesthesia is recommended (if not otherwise contraindicated). If a general anesthetic is indicated, a total intravenous anesthetic technique should be administered, with an anesthesia machine that has been prepared for an MH-susceptible individual.

Genetic counseling.

Malignant hyperthermia susceptibility (MHS) is an autosomal dominant disorder. Most individuals diagnosed with MHS have a parent with MHS, although the parent may not have experienced an episode of MH. The proportion of individuals with MHS caused by a de novo pathogenic variant is unknown. Each child of an individual with MHS has a 50% chance of inheriting a causative pathogenic variant. Prenatal teesting for a pregnancy at increased risk is possible if there is a known MH pathogenic variant in the family.

Suggestive Findings

MHS should be suspected in individuals presenting with clinical findings summarized in Table 1. The findings relate to signs occurring during or shortly after general anesthesia.

Each clinical finding is weighted as to significance in being associated with MHS as determined by malignant hyperthermia (MH) experts using a Delphi method. Points are assigned according to weight and are then totaled to produce a raw score, which translates to a likelihood of MH score, ranging from a raw score of 0 (MH rank 1: almost never/very unlikely) to a raw score ≥50 (MH rank 6: almost certain) [Larach et al 1994]. The more criteria an individual fulfills, the more likely that an MH episode has occurred. For example, with only temperature elevation during anesthesia, an individual is not likely to be susceptible to MH. A limitation of the scoring system is that not every clinical finding may be measured (e.g., arterial blood gas); MH may also recognized very quickly and treated before all the signs appear.

Establishing the Diagnosis

The diagnosis of MHS is established in a proband with:

• A positive diagnostic contracture test OR
• A heterozygous pathogenic variant in one of the genes listed in Table 3 identified by molecular genetic testing.

Note: (1) Molecular genetic testing is not 100% sensitive; MHS cannot be excluded based on failure to identify a pathogenic variant in one of the genes listed in Table 3. In such cases contracture testing should be performed at an MH muscle biopsy center. (2) A variant is established as pathogenic through variant assessment that includes functional analysis (see Molecular Genetics).

Clinical Description

The manifestations of malignant hyperthermia (MH) result from exposure to certain volatile anesthetic agents (i.e., halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane, and enflurane) that act as triggers either alone or in conjunction with succinylcholine, a depolarizing muscle relaxant. MH is an inherited pharmacogenetic disorder of calcium regulation resulting in uncontrolled skeletal muscle hypermetabolism [Rosenberg et al 2015] with variable clinical presentations (depending on the triggering agents and environmental factors, such as metabolic state and body temperature) at the beginning of anesthesia.

The triggering substances initiate uncontrolled release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum via the skeletal muscle calcium release channel (RyR1), and also may promote entry of extracellular calcium into the myoplasm leading to the sustained pathologic increase in cytosolic calcium in skeletal muscle cells [Yang et al 2007, Duke et al 2010, Riazi et al 2018]. Increased myoplasmic calcium causes contracture of skeletal muscles and activates glycogenolysis and cell metabolism, resulting in excessive production of heat and excess lactate. Activation of the oxidative cycle leads to high oxygen consumption and high carbon dioxide production.

MH clinical manifestations are variable; with prompt and rapid clinical response, some signs may not appear. Hypercapnia is common, as is tachycardia. Hyperthermia may be one of the early signs of MH. However, failure to monitor core temperature may lead to a delay in detecting hyperthermia. Skin temperature measurement is often misleading during MH crises [Larach et al 2010]. Acidosis may be mild if the syndrome is recognized and treated promptly. HyperCKemia and rhabdomyolysis are more common when succinylcholine has been used but may be mild or not appear at all in some individuals, for reasons that are not clear. In some instances rhabdomyolysis does not appear for several hours. Hyperkalemia, leading to cardiac arrhythmia and even arrest, is uncommon if the syndrome is detected and treated promptly but may develop with remarkable rapidity.

In survivors, normalization of edematous muscle and serum CK concentration occurs within ten to 15 days, but symptom resolution may take longer (Figure 1) [Jurkat-Rott et al 2000].

Figure 1.

Clinical features of malignant hyperthermia susceptibility Note: Early diagnosis and rapid therapy are both life saving and lead to a reduction of clinical symptoms.

MH may appear at any point during anesthetization or within an hour or so after termination of anesthesia. If succinylcholine is used during induction of anesthesia, an acceleration of the manifestations of MH may occur; tachycardia, elevation of end-tidal carbon dioxide levels, hypertension, marked temperature elevation, and arrhythmias are seen over the course of five to ten minutes. However, a completely normal response to succinylcholine may be present in some individuals susceptible to MH; in these individuals, a potent inhalation agent is apparently necessary to trigger the syndrome.

In almost all instances, the first manifestations of MH occur in the operating room. In classic MH, the initial signs are tachycardia, rapidly rising end-tidal C0_2, and tachypnea. Tachypnea is usually not recognized because most individuals receiving general anesthesia are paralyzed. Shortly after the heart rate increases, the blood pressure may increase, often associated with ventricular arrhythmias induced by sympathetic nervous system stimulation from hypercarbia, hyperkalemia, and catecholamine release. Thereafter, muscle rigidity or increased muscle tone may become apparent; and body temperature increases at a rate of 1°-2° C every five minutes.

At the same time, the CO₂ absorbent used in general anesthesia becomes activated and warm to the touch from the exothermic reaction with the CO₂ exhaled by the affected individual. The individual may display peripheral mottling, on occasion sweating, and in rare cases cyanosis. Blood gas analysis usually reveals hypercarbia (P_CO2>60 mmHg) and respiratory and metabolic acidosis without oxygen desaturation. Elevation of end-tidal CO₂ greater than 55 mmHg is one of the earliest signs of MH; however, vigorous mechanical hyperventilation may prevent hypercarbia and delay the diagnosis [Karan et al 1994]. A mixed venous blood sample shows even more evidence of CO₂ retention and metabolic acidosis. Hyperkalemia, hypercalcemia, lactacidemia, and myoglobinuria are characteristic but not always present. Increase in serum CK concentration often exceeds 20,000 units/L in the first 12-24 hours.

Death results unless the individual is promptly treated (see Management). Even with treatment and survival, the individual is at risk for life-threatening myoglobinuric renal failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), compartment syndrome, and recrudescence of the syndrome within the first 24-36 hours following the episode. A study of MH using a North American MH registry containing information about affected individuals reported between 1987 and 2006 showed that nonfatal complications occurred in 35% of these individuals. Twelve of these complications included cardiac, renal, or hepatic dysfunction; coma or change in consciousness level; pulmonary edema; and DIC [Larach et al 2010].

Early diagnosis and rapid therapy are life saving and also lead to a reduction of clinical symptoms. It should be noted that modern anesthetic care and monitoring often allow early detection of MH. Treatment with dantrolene results in much lower morbidity and mortality than first reported when MH was recognized in the 1960s [Larach et al 2008]; however, mortality may be as high as 11% [Rosero et al 2009]. The likelihood of any complication increased 2.9 times per 2° C increase in maximum temperature and 1.6 times per 30-minute delay in dantrolene administration [Larach et al 2010]. The most frequent complications associated with dantrolene administration are muscle weakness (14.6%), phlebitis (9.2%), and gastrointestinal upset (4.3%). There is a 25% increase in the risk for any of the above complications when the total dose of dantrolene as required by clinical indications is twice the recommended initial treatment dose of 2.5 mg/kg [Brandom et al 2011].

The presentation of MH outside a hospital setting may pose special problems. Several deaths from MH have occurred when the episode began in an ambulatory surgery setting. Probable causes include inadequate preparation for treating MH (including absence of dantrolene), insufficient and unprepared personnel, and problems in stabilizing an affected individual prior to transfer to a hospital. It is suggested that all facilities have a plan to deal with MH and hold practice drills at regular intervals (see Larach et al [2012] for transfer-of-care protocols).

MH may also occur in the early postoperative period, usually within the first hour of recovery from anesthesia. Characteristic tachycardia, tachypnea, hypertension, and arrhythmias presage an episode of MH. Isolated myoglobinuria without an obvious increase in metabolism in the postoperative period (≤24 hours) should alert the anesthesiologist to the possibility of MH.

Of note, an MH episode may not occur with every exposure to "trigger" agents; clinical manifestations depend on genetic predisposition, dose of trigger agents, and duration of trigger exposure.

Signs of MH have also been reported without exposure to anesthetic agents. In some cases signs follow overdose of MDMA agonists; in other cases MH may be associated with heat and exercise.

Genotype-Phenotype Correlations

Genotype-phenotype correlations in MHS are difficult to study. No correlation between genotype and clinical phenotype is apparent because caffeine/halothane contracture test / in vitro contracture test results are variable among diagnostic laboratories, and clinical episodes of MHS that fulfill all criteria are rare because of successful intervention during anesthetic complications.

A limited number of studies have addressed genotype-phenotype correlations in individuals with RYR1-related MHS [Robinson et al 2002, Robinson et al 2003, Carpenter et al 2009]. Stronger contractures and shorter response times in the response to caffeine have been reported in individuals with an RYR1 pathogenic variant [Carpenter et al 2009].

No genotype-phenotype correlations for STAC3 have been identified.

No genotype-phenotype correlations for CACNA1S have been identified.

Penetrance

In a multicenter case-control study, the overall penetrance for RYR1-related MHS was 40.6%. The probability of developing MH on exposure to triggers was 0.25 among all individuals with an RYR1 pathogenic variant and 0.76 in survivors of MH reactions (95% CI of the difference 0.41 to 0.59) [Ibarra Moreno et al 2019].

Prevalence

The incidence of MH is best described by the reported incidence per anesthetic. The estimates of the incidence range from one in 3,000 anesthetics to one in 50,000 anesthetics, with most estimating an incidence in children of about one in 10,000 anesthetics and in adults of one in 50,000 anesthetics. The prevalence of MH in individuals undergoing surgery in New York state hospitals was estimated at 1:100,000 for adults [Brady et al 2009] and 3:100,000 for children [Li et al 2011]. Because many individuals who experience marked hyperthermia while undergoing surgery may be coded as being MH susceptible, the exact incidence and prevalence has been difficult to clarify. It appears certain that there are more than 1,000 cases of MH in the US each year [Brandom & Muldoon 2004]. The incidence varies depending on the routine use of trigger anesthetics.

Gonsalves et al [2013] identified a prevalence of 0.46% (4/870) for MHS-related RYR1 pathogenic variants. Based on genetic variation data of more than 60,000 individuals (gnomad.broadinstitute.org; accessed 9-19-2019), the combined prevalence of MHS-related RYR1 pathogenic variants was estimated at 1:2750 [Riazi et al 2018]. Using RYR1 and CACNA1S genomic databases, the estimated prevalence of an MHS-related pathogenic variant was 1:1556 [Mungunsukh et al 2019].