Adenine Phosphoribosyltransferase Deficiency
Summary
Clinical characteristics.
Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) deficiency is characterized by excessive production and renal excretion of 2,8-dihydroxyadenine (DHA), which leads to kidney stone formation and crystal-induced kidney damage (i.e., DHA crystal nephropathy) causing acute kidney injury episodes and progressive chronic kidney disease (CKD). Kidney stones, the most common clinical manifestation of APRT deficiency, can occur at any age; in at least 50% of affected persons symptoms do not occur until adulthood. If adequate treatment is not provided, approximately 20%-25% of affected individuals develop end-stage renal disease (ESRD), usually in adult life.
Diagnosis/testing.
The diagnosis of APRT deficiency is established in a proband by absence of APRT enzyme activity in red cell lysates or identification of biallelic pathogenic variants in APRT. The detection of the characteristic round, brown DHA crystals by urine microscopy is highly suggestive of the disorder.
Management.
Treatment of manifestations: Treatment with the xanthine oxidoreductase inhibitors (XOR; xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase) allopurinol or febuxostat can improve kidney function, even in individuals with advanced CKD. The prescribed dose of allopurinol and febuxostat should not routinely be reduced in affected individuals who have impaired kidney function. Ample fluid intake is advised. Surgical management of DHA nephrolithiasis is the same as for other types of kidney stones. ESRD is treated with dialysis and kidney transplantation. Even after kidney transplantation, treatment with an XOR is recommended.
Surveillance: Measurement of eGFR and urinary DHA excretion (or urine microscopy for assessment of DHA crystalluria) every 6-12 months; routine follow up to facilitate adherence to pharmacologic treatment at least annually; periodic renal ultrasound examination should be considered to evaluate for new asymptomatic kidney stones.
Agents/circumstances to avoid: Azathioprine and mercaptopurine should not be given to individuals taking either allopurinol or febuxostat.
Evaluation of relatives at risk: It is recommended that sibs of an affected individual undergo APRT enzyme activity measurement or molecular genetic testing (if the pathogenic variants in a family have been identified) to allow early diagnosis and treatment and improve long-term outcome.
Pregnancy management: The safety of allopurinol and febuxostat in human pregnancy has not been systematically studied. Some post-transplantation immunosuppressive therapies can have adverse effects on the developing fetus. Ideally a thorough discussion of the risks and benefits of maternal medication use during pregnancy should take place with an appropriate health care provider prior to conception.
Genetic counseling.
APRT deficiency is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. At conception, each sib of an affected individual has a 25% chance of being affected, a 50% chance of being an asymptomatic carrier, and a 25% chance of being normal. Carrier testing for at-risk relatives and prenatal diagnosis for pregnancies at increased risk are possible if the pathogenic variants in the family have been identified.
Diagnosis
Suggestive Findings
Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) deficiency (also known as 2,8-dihydroxyadeninuria) should be suspected in individuals with the following clinical, radiographic, laboratory, and pathology findings [Balasubramaniam et al 2016, Runolfsdottir et al 2016, Garigali et al 2019, Runolfsdottir et al 2019a].
Clinical manifestations
- Kidney stone disease and renal colic
- Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
- Crystal nephropathy (confirmed by kidney biopsy; see Pathology)
- Reddish-brown diaper stain in infants and young children
- Allograft dysfunction following kidney transplantation
Radiographic findings
- Radiolucent kidney stones, detected by ultrasound or computed tomography (CT). Stones are not seen on a plain abdominal x-ray.
- Ultrasound examination frequently demonstrates increased echogenicity of the kidneys.
Laboratory findings
- Urine microscopy. The round and brown DHA crystals can usually be detected by urine microscopy (Figure 1A). Small and medium-sized DHA crystals display a central Maltese cross pattern when viewed by polarized light microscopy (Figure 1B), while larger crystal aggregates do not as they are impermeable to light.Note: (1) DHA crystals may be difficult to identify in individuals with advanced CKD, possibly due to reduced DHA clearance by the kidney [Bollée et al 2010, Edvardsson et al 2013]. (2) High urine pH in individuals with radiolucent stones provides an additional clue to the diagnosis of APRT deficiency because uric acid stones develop in acidic urine [Edvardsson et al 2013] (see Differential Diagnosis).
- Kidney stone analysis. Analysis of DHA crystals and kidney stone material using infrared or ultraviolet spectrophotometry (at both acidic and alkaline pH) and/or x-ray crystallography differentiates DHA from uric acid and xanthine, which also form radiolucent stones. Although stones in persons with APRT deficiency are predominantly composed of DHA, they may contain trace amounts of other minerals.
- Kidney stone analysis using the above techniques is dependent on skilled personnel and, thus, cannot be used to establish a diagnosis of APRT deficiency (see Establishing the Diagnosis).
- Stone analysis employing standard chemical and thermogravimetric methods does not distinguish DHA from other purines (e.g., uric acid) and is not recommended.
Figure 1.
Pathology. Renal histopathologic findings in persons with APRT deficiency and CKD or acute allograft dysfunction are characterized by diffuse tubulointerstitial DHA crystal deposits accompanied by inflammation and fibrosis (see Figure 2), which may be observed even in individuals without a history of kidney stones [Nasr et al 2010, Zaidan et al 2014, Agrawal et al 2015, Lusco et al 2017].
Figure 2.
Note: It is important not to confuse the histopathologic manifestations of DHA crystal nephropathy with those of other crystal nephropathies, particularly those caused by oxalate (particularly primary hyperoxaluria) and uric acid deposits [Nasr et al 2010].
Establishing the Diagnosis
The diagnosis of APRT deficiency is established in a proband with absent APRT enzyme activity in red cell lysates or biallelic pathogenic variants in APRT identified by molecular genetic testing (see Table 1). See Figure 3 for a diagnostic algorithm [Edvardsson et al 2013].
Figure 3.
Note: Kidney stone analysis suggesting APRT deficiency is not reliable enough to establish the diagnosis.
APRT Enzyme Activity
APRT activity measured in red cell lysates ranges from 16 to 32 nmol/hr per mg hemoglobin in healthy individuals. In almost all individuals with APRT deficiency, APRT enzyme activity measured in red cell lysates (or other cell extracts) is absent; however, exceptions do occur. For example, two enzyme isoforms resulting from the following APRT pathogenic variants have substantial activity in red cell lysates:
- p.Val150Phe [Deng et al 2001] (present in some individuals of northern European heritage)
- p.Met136Thr [Ikeda et al 2016] (present in >70% of Japanese, who are homozygous for this pathogenic variant)
Thus, in individuals with these two pathogenic variants, in vivo assays (e.g., uptake of adenine by intact erythrocytes or leukocytes) are required to verify APRT deficiency.
Note: (1) If enzyme activity is within normal limits or in the heterozygote range in an individual who has recently received a red cell transfusion, enzyme activity measurement should be repeated after three months. (2) Heterozygotes for an APRT pathogenic variant cannot be reliably identified by enzyme assay in cell extracts as the enzyme activity range in these individuals overlaps with that of controls.
Molecular Genetic Testing
Approaches can include single-gene testing and use of a multigene panel.
- Single-gene testing. Sequence analysis of APRT is performed first and followed by gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis if only one or no pathogenic variant is found.
- A multigene panel that includes APRT and other genes of interest (see Differential Diagnosis) may be considered. Note: (1) The genes included in the panel and the diagnostic sensitivity of the testing used for each gene vary by laboratory and are likely to change over time. (2) Some multigene panels may include genes not associated with the condition discussed in this GeneReview; thus, clinicians need to determine which multigene panel is most likely to identify the genetic cause of the condition at the most reasonable cost while limiting identification of variants of uncertain significance and pathogenic variants in genes that do not explain the underlying phenotype. (3) In some laboratories, panel options may include a custom laboratory-designed panel and/or custom phenotype-focused exome analysis that includes genes specified by the clinician. (4) Methods used in a panel may include sequence analysis, deletion/duplication analysis, and/or other non-sequencing-based tests.For an introduction to multigene panels click here. More detailed information for clinicians ordering genetic tests can be found here.
Table 1.
Gene 1 | Method | Proportion of Probands with a Pathogenic Variant 2 Detectable by Method |
---|---|---|
APRT | Sequence analysis 3, 4 | ~87% 5 |
Gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis 6 | Rare 7 |
- 1.
See Table A. Genes and Databases for chromosome locus and protein.
- 2.
See Molecular Genetics for information on allelic variants detected in this gene.
- 3.
Sequence analysis detects variants that are benign, likely benign, of uncertain significance, likely pathogenic, or pathogenic. Variants may include small intragenic deletions/insertions and missense, nonsense, and splice site variants; typically, exon or whole-gene deletions/duplications are not detected. For issues to consider in interpretation of sequence analysis results, click here.
- 4.
Approximately 50 pathogenic variants have been identified in the coding region of APRT in >400 affected individuals from >25 countries, including at least 200 individuals from Japan (see Molecular Genetics).
- 5.
DNA sequence analysis of the APRT coding region and intron/exon junctions from 31 affected individuals (62 chromosomes) with complete APRT deficiency failed to identify 13% of the mutated alleles [Bollée et al 2010]. It remains to be determined whether pathogenic variants occur outside of the sequenced regions or are due to epigenetic changes.
- 6.
Gene-targeted deletion/duplication analysis detects intragenic deletions or duplications. Methods used may include quantitative PCR, long-range PCR, multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA), and a gene-targeted microarray designed to detect single-exon deletions or duplications.
- 7.
Rare deletions of both APRT and GALNS, as well as a complex 254-bp deletion with 8-bp insertion, have been described (see Molecular Genetics).
Note that enzyme activity measurements in cell extracts alone may not be sufficient to determine the functional significance of novel variants (see APRT Enzyme Activity).
Clinical Characteristics
Clinical Description
More than 400 individuals with adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) deficiency have been reported in the medical literature [Bollée et al 2010, Bollée et al 2012, Harambat et al 2012, Balasubramaniam et al 2014, Zaidan et al 2014, Runolfsdottir et al 2016, Huq et al 2018, Runolfsdottir et al 2019a, Runolfsdottir et al 2019b].
Table 2.
Presenting Renal Manifestation | Approximate Frequency |
---|---|
Kidney stone disease 1 | 60%-90% |
Chronic kidney disease 2, 3 | >50% |
Acute kidney injury 4 | 30% 5 |
End-stage renal disease | 15% |
- 1.
In both children and adults
- 2.
In adult life
- 3.
Due to DHA crystal nephropathy
- 4.
Due to urinary tract obstruction
- 5.
Runolfsdottir et al [2016]
Age at presentation. APRT deficiency may present at any age; there is no typical age of clinical onset. However, in at least 50% of affected individuals, symptoms do not occur until adulthood.
- The age at diagnosis among individuals in the APRT Deficiency Registry of the Rare Kidney Stone Consortium (RKSC) ranged from six months to 72 years (median age: 37 years) [Runolfsdottir et al 2016].
- Approximately 35% of persons with APRT deficiency are diagnosed before age 18 years.
- In a significant number of asymptomatic individuals, a diagnosis of APRT deficiency has been suggested by the detection of DHA crystals on routine urine microscopy or through the screening of sibs of affected individuals and subsequently confirmed by enzyme activity or genetic testing.
Of note, abdominal ultrasound and CT examinations performed for other reasons may identify kidney stones in individuals with APRT deficiency who may be otherwise asymptomatic [Huq et al 2018].
Kidney stone disease. Between 60% and 90% of affected individuals have already developed kidney stones at diagnosis. In the absence of pharmacotherapy (see Management, Table 4), the majority of those untreated symptomatic persons experience stone recurrence [Runolfsdottir et al 2019a], abdominal pain, and/or lower urinary tract symptoms (e.g., straining, hesitancy, dribbling, incomplete bladder emptying).
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) secondary to DHA crystal nephropathy is present in more than 50% of individuals at diagnosis [Runolfsdottir et al 2016]. As many as 15% of affected individuals have progressed to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) at the time of diagnosis of APRT deficiency [Harambat et al 2012, Runolfsdottir et al 2016].
- In some of these individuals, the diagnosis was not made until after kidney transplantation had been performed.
- The relatively frequent occurrence of advanced CKD and even ESRD at the time of diagnosis is concerning and suggests a lack of familiarity with this easily treatable condition [Runolfsdottir et al 2019a].
ESRD. Approximately 20%-25% of affected individuals develop ESRD, usually in adult life, if adequate treatment is not provided.
- Importantly, individuals with APRT deficiency who are diagnosed and treated early with allopurinol or febuxostat have a much more favorable renal outcome [Runolfsdottir et al 2019a] (see Management, Table 4).
- Timely diagnosis and institution of pharmacologic therapy appears to reduce stone burden and retard or possibly prevent CKD progression to ESRD, even in severely affected individuals.
APRT deficiency is not known to affect organs other than the kidney; however, the authors and other investigators have encountered occasional individuals with APRT deficiency complaining of eye discomfort [Neetens et al 1986; Author, personal observation], which merits further study.
Genotype-Phenotype Correlations
No genotype-phenotype correlations have been established; clinical features are known to vary greatly among individuals with the same pathogenic variants [Bollée et al 2010, Runolfsdottir et al 2016].
Nomenclature
Originally, two types of APRT deficiency with identical clinical manifestations were described, based on the level of residual APRT activity in cell extracts (erythrocyte lysates) [Sahota et al 2001]. However, this distinction is of historic interest only, as APRT enzyme activity in intact cells has been shown to be less than 1% in both types [Kamatani et al 1985] (see APRT Enzyme Activity).
Prevalence
The estimated heterozygote frequency in different populations ranges from 0.4% to 1.2% [Hidaka et al 1987, Sahota et al 2001], suggesting that the prevalence of a homozygous state is at least 1:50,000 to 1:100,000.
If this holds true, at least 70,000-80,000 individuals should be affected worldwide, of whom 40,000 would be expected to be in Asia, 9,000 in Europe, and 8,000 in the Americas, including at least 3,000 affected individuals in the US alone. Most of these individuals are currently unrecognized, and thus not benefitting from medical therapy.
Evidence suggests that APRT deficiency may be a seriously underrecognized cause of kidney stones and crystal nephropathy, progressing over time to ESRD in a significant proportion of untreated individuals [Zaidan et al 2014].
Differential Diagnosis
Differential diagnosis of APRT deficiency includes other known causes of radiolucent kidney stones such as uric acid nephrolithiasis (OMIM 605990) and xanthinuria (OMIM PS278300).
The diagnosis of APRT deficiency should be considered in all individuals with chronic kidney disease or kidney failure, particularly in those with renal histopathologic features of crystal nephropathy, even in the absence of a history of nephrolithiasis. Pathologists and physicians must be aware that kidney biopsy findings in persons with APRT deficiency may have a similar appearance to and be confused with those of primary hyperoxaluria type 1, type 2, and type 3 [Bollée et al 2010, Runolfsdottir et al 2016].
Management
Evaluations Following Initial Diagnosis
To establish the extent of disease and needs of an individual diagnosed with adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) deficiency, the evaluations in Table 3 (if not performed as part of the evaluation that led to the diagnosis) are recommended.
Table 3.
System/Concern | Evaluation | Comment |
---|---|---|
Renal | Measurement of serum creatinine (&/or cystatin C) concentration | |
Urine screening for DHA crystalluria & albuminuria or proteinuria | ||
Ultrasound or CT exam of kidneys | To assess kidney stone burden | |
Consider kidney biopsy. | In individuals w/↓ renal function &/or proteinuria | |
Eyes | Consider ophthalmologic consultation. | In those w/ocular or vision symptoms |
Miscellaneous/ Other | Consultation w/clinical geneticist &/or genetic counselor |
DHA = 2,8-dihydroxyadenine
Treatment of Manifestations
Table 4.
Goal | Treatment | Dosage | Considerations | Other |
---|---|---|---|---|
Reduction of renal DHA excretion 1 | Allopurinol 2, 3, 4 | 5-10 mg/kg/day (max dose: 800 mg/day) either 1x/day or in 2 divided doses | Allopurinol dose should not routinely be reduced in those w/impaired kidney function. |
|
Febuxostat 2 | 80 mg/day 5 |
| ||
Reduction of urine DHA supersaturation & crystallization | Ample fluid intake | NA | May provide an adjunctive benefit to pharmacologic therapy |
CKD = chronic kidney disease; DHA = 2,8-dihydroxyadenine; NA = not applicable
- 1.
There are no data to support dietary purine restriction as a treatment of this condition, particularly when treatment with allopurinol or febuxostat is used and urine DHA excretion is already very low.
- 2.
Both allopurinol and febuxostat are oxidoreductase inhibitors (XOR; xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase).
- 3.
Generally effective and well tolerated
- 4.
Minimizes urinary DHA excretion and crystalluria, stone formation, crystal deposition in the kidney, and development of kidney failure [Bollée et al 2010, Edvardsson et al 2018, Runolfsdottir et al 2019a]
- 5.
No data are available on appropriate dosing for pediatric age groups.
- 6.
A comparison between allopurinol (400 mg/day) and febuxostat (80 mg/day) on urinary DHA excretion found that febuxostat was significantly more efficacious [Edvardsson et al 2018].
Table 5.
Manifestation/ Concern | Treatment | Consideration/Other |
---|---|---|
DHA kidney stones 1 | Standard surgical management | Incl extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy |
CKD 2 | Aggressive management of hypertension | Consider ACE inhibitors or angiotensin-receptor blockers in those w/proteinuria. |
Standard reduction of cardiovascular risk factors | ||
ESRD 3 | Dialysis | It is not known if affected individuals on dialysis benefit from allopurinol &/or febuxostat therapy, unless a kidney transplant is planned. |
Kidney transplant |
|
ACE = angiotensin-converting enzyme; CKD = chronic kidney disease; DHA = 2,8-dihydroxyadenine; ESRD = end-stage renal disease
- 1.
For prevention of new kidney stone formation, see Table 4.
- 2.
Including measures to relieve symptoms, control complications, and slow the progression of the disease (see the KDIGO CKD guideline)
- 3.
Management of APRT deficiency in those with ESRD
- 4.
Author, unpublished observation
Prevention of Primary Manifestations
Adequate treatment of APRT deficiency with allopurinol or febuxostat prevents kidney stone formation and the development of CKD in most, if not all, individuals with the disorder [Edvardsson et al 2001, Bollée et al 2010, Harambat et al 2012] (see Table 4).
Surveillance
No consensus surveillance guidelines have been established.
Table 6.
System/Concern | Evaluation | Frequency |
---|---|---|
Renal | Measurement of eGFR derived from serum creatinine &/or serum cystatin C | Every 6-12 mos or as clinically indicated |
Urine microscopy for assessment of DHA crystalluria 1, 2, 3 if direct DHA measurements not available 4 | ||
Renal ultrasound 5 | Periodically | |
Other | Assess medication compliance. | At least annually |
eGFR = estimated glomerular filtration rate
- 1.
Using first morning void urine specimen, if possible
- 2.
In those receiving pharmacotherapy
- 3.
Although not optimal, the absence of DHA crystals on urine microscopy can be considered indicative of adequate treatment. A highly significant correlation between 24-hour urinary DHA excretion and DHA crystalluria has been observed [Runolfsdottir et al 2019b].
- 4.
See Therapies and Assays Under Investigation for information about the UPLC-MS/MS assay for therapeutic monitoring [Thorsteinsdottir et al 2016, Edvardsson et al 2018].
- 5.
To evaluate for new, asymptomatic kidney stones
Agents/Circumstances to Avoid
Azathioprine and mercaptopurine should be avoided by individuals taking XOR inhibitors (allopurinol or febuxostat). Inhibition of xanthine oxidase may cause increased plasma concentrations of azathioprine or mercaptopurine, leading to toxicity.
Evaluation of Relatives at Risk
It is appropriate to evaluate apparently asymptomatic sibs of an affected individual in order to identify as early as possible those who would benefit from prompt initiation of treatment and preventive measures. Approximately 15% of individuals with APRT deficiency may be asymptomatic [Bollée et al 2010, Runolfsdottir et al 2016]; these individuals are usually identified during family screening.
Evaluations can include the following:
- Molecular genetic testing if the pathogenic variants in the family are known. Further investigations, including assessment of renal function and urinalysis, are warranted in individuals with biallelic pathogenic variants.
- APRT enzyme activity measurements, particularly if the pathogenic variants in the family are not known
See Genetic Counseling for issues related to testing of at-risk relatives for genetic counseling purposes.
Pregnancy Management
The safety of allopurinol and febuxostat in human pregnancy has not been systematically studied.
Animal studies using high doses of allopurinol have revealed evidence of adverse fetal effects in mice but not in rabbits or rats; it is not clear if these effects are a result of direct fetal toxicity or maternal toxicity. Thus, allopurinol should only be prescribed during pregnancy when the benefit of treatment is believed to outweigh the risk. Treatment with allopurinol during pregnancy should be considered in women with APRT deficiency who have CKD with reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) or who have undergone kidney transplantation.
Animal studies using high doses of febuxostat in rats and rabbits have not supported a teratogenic effect. However, very high doses in pregnant rats have been associated with neonatal loss and low pup birthweight.
Some post-transplantation immunosuppressive therapies can also have adverse effects on the developing fetus.
A thorough discussion of the risks and benefits of maternal medication use during pregnancy should ideally take place with an appropriate health care provider prior to conception.
See MotherToBaby for further information on medication use during pregnancy.
Therapies and Assays Under Investigation
Urinary DHA measurements. The authors' group has recently developed a urinary DHA assay using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) [Thorsteinsdottir et al 2016], which is expected to facilitate both the clinical diagnosis and monitoring of pharmacotherapy of individuals with APRT deficiency [Edvardsson et al 2018]. Further clinical studies to examine the sensitivity and specificity of the assay are currently under way.
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